Linum usitatissimum, common flax, Linum usitatissimum

From Greek and Roman antiquity to the European Middle Ages, linen was the material of choice for clothing alongside wool. Linen had its heyday in pre-industrial Europe. The heyday of linen came to an end in the 19th century with the import of large quantities of cotton from North America, which was easier to process mechanically.

The common flax: oil and fibre plant

Common flax is the only type of flax whose cultivation is of economic importance. It belongs to the flax family (Linaceae) – oil flax and fiber flax are different varieties of common flax, which is an annual plant and is also called flax. It is descended from the original biennial flax, which is native to the Mediterranean region. The flax grows to a height of 30 – 100 cm and has small, light blue, five-petaled flowers. It grows underground with a short, spindle-shaped taproot with fine lateral roots. The stems are usually single and upright; they are branched in the area of the inflorescence. Fertilisation is mainly by self-pollination, more rarely by insects. The capsules contain 6 to 7 mucilaginous, very oily, flattened, yellowish to brownish seeds.

Flax makes no special demands on the soil, but it does not tolerate waterlogging. Oil flax survives dry periods better than fiber flax – as do late frosts. Long-day conditions are necessary for flower formation and fiber growth, so the nights must be shorter than the days during this time. The plant also needs a preceding crop that leaves few weeds behind and, in crop rotation, a gap of six years between two flax crops is necessary to prevent the accumulation of harmful fungi in the soil.

Fibre flax requires special machines for harvesting. Harvesting takes place at yellow ripeness, i.e. seven to ten days before full ripeness. The plants are lifted in bundles with a digging machine, i.e. taken out of the ground by the roots and left on the field to dry and ripen. On average, 5 to 6 tons of straw are harvested per hectare.

Thread of the millennia: The history of linen

Perhaps the oldest manufactured fabric, textiles made from wild linen were found in prehistoric cave dwellings in the Caucasus and are estimated to be 38,000 years old. The cultivation of fibre linen started much later – the earliest period of cultivation that is considered certain was 6000 to 8000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Egyptian linen fabrics from the beginning of the 4th millennium BC are the oldest discoveries of linen processing. However, this was not the peak of the flax career: the plant probably achieved its greatest importance later in Europe. Flax arrived in Central Europe very early, from 5500 BCE, with the Linear Pottery culture, and almost 3000 years later it reached Northern Europe.

In medieval and early modern Europe, linen production and trade were important economically, with Germany as the world’s leading producer in the 12th and 13th centuries. Until the 19th century, linen was the only textile fibre in Europe alongside hemp, nettle and wool. Back in the 18th century, linen had a share of around 18 percent, compared to 78 percent for wool. The main areas of cultivation were Western Europe, Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary. Due to the emergence of cotton, which was cheaper and, above all, easier to process, the area under cultivation fell sharply in the 19th century. There was a brief increase in cultivation during the two world wars, when cotton imports were not possible due to the political situation. In the post-war period, however, cultivation only continued in northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands.

The largest flax growing regions today are China with over 16,000 hectares, followed by Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and Egypt (still 8,900 hectares). However, the world’s best yields come from northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands (EU total over 100,000 hectares).

The majority of European long fibre production is exported, primarily to China, where it is used in textiles, building materials or as a reinforcing material. The remaining quantities are then often processed in Hungary, Austria, northern Italy or the Czech Republic. More than half of the linen yarn produced worldwide also comes from China. Italy is the second largest exporter of yarn and fabrics, followed by Tunisia and Lithuania. Apart from small weaving mills, there is no commercial producer of linen in the United States.

From field to fiber

The fibers of the flax plant are mainly used to make fabric, and occasionally also paper, ropes or fishing nets, but today they are increasingly being used to make insulating material. As the processing is very time-consuming and therefore expensive, linen fabrics are being produced less and less often and cotton or synthetic fibers are being used instead.

Once the plants have been harvested and dried, the next processing steps follow: fluting, roasting, breaking, swinging, hackling and spinning. During ‘fluting’, the seeds are separated from the stalks and the flax is ‘combed’. The seeds can then be processed in other ways. The flax stalks are then ‘roasted’. To do this, the plant parts are left in water for several days so that the fibers begin to rot. In the next step, the wooden core surrounding the fiber is loosened by ‘breaking’, then the pieces of wood are removed from the fibers by ‘swinging’. Finally, the fibers are combed and the comb is adjusted to the desired fineness. In further steps, the fibers are ‘spun’ into yarn, which is then bleached or dyed and is finally ready for weaving or other textile production.

Reach deep into your wallet for sturdy, sustainable clothing

Linen clothing is breathable and absorbs moisture from the air just as well as it releases it, giving it a cooling effect. Due to the length and structure of its fibers, it is very robust and can last for many years if cared for properly. The fabric is dirt-repellent, resistant to bacteria and also lint-free. However, linen clothing is delicate and should ideally be washed by hand or on a gentle cycle and left to air dry.

Unfortunately, linen textiles are relatively expensive compared to other fabrics. This would be different if the entire costs along the value chain were priced in, especially with regard to environmental compatibility.

Linen versus cotton

• While linen requires no artificial irrigation, cotton is one of the most water-intensive crops in the world.
• While linen generally does not require the use of pesticides, cotton is treated with large quantities of pesticides and herbicides – with all the negative effects this has on the environment and human health.
• While linen leaves hardly any waste during processing, cotton not only generates more waste during production, but also because the garments wear out more quickly.

Sources

Pflanzenforschung.de: Flax. Link.
The chemistry school: Common flax. Link.